自考英语语言学Chapter One

Chapter 1 Introduction 简介

一、本章纲要

Chapter 1 Introduction 1. What is linguistics? 1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics 1.3.1 Prescriptive vs. descriptive 1.3.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic 1.3.3 Speech and writing 1.3.4 Langue and parole 1.3.5 Competence and performance 1.2 The scope of linguistics 1.1 Definition 2. What is language? 2.1 Definitions of language 2.2 Design features 二、要点讲解

三、要点概述

1. What is linguistics? 1.1 Definition

Definition: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. （2007，11填空） Note:

(1) The word “language” implies that linguistics studies not any particular language, but languages in general.

(2) The word “study” does not mean “learn” but “investigation” or “examine”. (3) “Scientific” refers to the way in which the language is studied.

(4) （2006，11填空）Based on systematic investigation of language data, the study is conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In studying language, the linguist first has to study language facts, and then he formulates some hypotheses about language structure which have to be re-checked against the observed facts so as to prove their validity.

The process of linguistic study:

1) Certain linguistic facts are observed, and generalizations are made about them; 2) Based on these generalization, hypotheses are formed to account for these facts; 3) Hypotheses are tested by further observations;

4) A linguistic theory is constructed about what language is and how it works.

1.2 The scope of linguistics语言学的研究范畴 (1) （2008，32名词解释）General linguistics – the study of language as a whole, which deals with

the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models, methods applicable in any linguistic study. 对语言体系作全面研究的语言学研究称为普通语言学。

(2) Phonetics – the study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication. 语音学主要是对语言声音媒介的研究，它不只是研究某一特定的语言的声音媒介，而是所有语言的声音媒介。

(3) Phonology – the study of how sounds are put together and used in communication. 音系学与语音学不同，它主要研究特定语言的语音体系，即音是如何结合在一起产生有意义的单位。 (4) Morphology – the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words. 形态学主要研究单词的内部语义结构，及这些叫做词素的语义最小单位是如何结合构成单词。 (5) Syntax – the study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences. 句法学主要研究构成潜在句子的句法规则。

(6) Semantics – the study of meaning in language. 语义学以研究语义为目的，传统语义学主要研究抽象的意义，独立于语境之外的意义。

(7) Pragmatics – the study of meaning in context of use. 语用学也是研究语义，但是它把语义研究置于语言使用语境中加以研究。

(8) Socio-linguistics – the study of language with reference to society. 语言不是一个孤立的现象，而是一种社会现象，各种社会因素都会对语言的使用产生影响。从社会的角度来研究语言的科学被称之为社会语言学。语言和社会之间的关系是社会语言学研究的主要内容。 (9) Psycholinguistics – the study of language with reference to the workings of mind. 心理语言学主要从心理学的角度来研究语言。它要研究人们在使用语言时大脑的工作机理，如人是如何习得母语的，人的大脑是如何加工和记忆语言信息等问题。

(10) Applied linguistics – Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of such problems as the recovery of speech ability. This study is called applied linguistics. In a narrow sense, it refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. 把语言学的研究成果应用到实践中的科学形成了应用语言学。狭义上，应用语言学指把语言理论和原则运用于语言教学的科学，在广义上，它指把语言理论与原则应用于解决实际问题的科学。

(11) Anthropological / neurological / mathematical / computational linguistics除此之外还有人类语言学、神经语言学、数学语言学、计算语言学等。

1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics语言学研究中的几对基本概念 1.3.1 Prescriptive vs. Descriptive规定性和描述性

If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive (modern); if it aims to lay down rules for “correct” behavior, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive (traditional). （04年，08年11填空）

(Question: how is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?)

Modern linguistics, i. e., linguistics study carried out in this century is mostly descriptive.

1.3.2 Synchronic vs. Diachronic共时性和历时性

（2005，7选择；名词解释）The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. （2006，21判断）In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic

study. Synchronic descriptions are often thought of as being descriptions of a language as it exists at the present day and most linguistic studies are of this type.

1.3.3 Speech and writing口头语和书面语

As two major media of communication, modern linguistics regards spoken form as primary, because the spoken form is prior to the written form and most writing systems are derived from the spoken form. In the past, traditional grammarians tended to over-emphasize the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.

(Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of a language as primary?)

(2003，21判断) In the past, traditional grammarians tended to over-emphasize the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.

Modern linguistics gives priority to the spoken form of language, which is considered as more basic than the written form for a number of reasons. （Why？（2004，21判断））

1.3.4 Langue and parole (语言和言语)

（2008，1选择）The distinction was made by famous Swiss Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Both are French words.

1) Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech

community, and parole refers to realization of langue in actual use.

2) Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow while

parole is their concrete use.

3) Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to

the naturally occurring language events.

4) Langue is relatively stable and does not change frequently; while parole varies from person

to person, and from situation to situation.

Saussure made this distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. In his opinion, parole is simply a mass of linguistic facts, too varied and confusing for systematic investigation, and linguists are supposed to abstract langue from parole.

1.3.5 Competence and performance (语言能力和语言运用)

Similar to 1.3.4, American Noam Chomsky in the late 1950’s defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication（2004，选择）.

According to Chomsky, a speaker has internalized a set of rules about his language, this enables him to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. (2005，21判断 )

Chomsky thinks that linguists should study competence but not performance. Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks that linguists should study the ideal speaker’s competence, but not his performance.

As one difference, Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of language is a matter of social inventions, whereas Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.

2 What is language?

2.1 Definitions

Nowadays, the generally accepted definition of language is that language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. “语言是一种用于人类交际的任意的语音符号系统。”（2005，11填空；2007，21判断）

1) Language is a system, as elements of language are combined according to rules;

2) Arbitrary, as no intrinsic connection between form and meaning, or between sign and what it stands for;

3) Vocal, as primary medium is sound for all languages.

“Human” indicates the difference from the communication systems of other living creatures. “Communication” means that language makes it possible for its users to talk to each other and fulfill their communicative needs.

2.2 Design features语言的识别性特征（2006，41问答）

（2007，1单选）Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. The American Charles Hockett specified 12 design features, 5 of which will be discussed here. 1) Arbitrariness任意性

No logical connection between meanings and sounds, symbols, words. 它指音与义之间没有逻辑联系。比如说，不同的语言使用不同的音指相同的事物。

Not entirely arbitrary, there are some words in every language that imitate natural sounds. Some compound words are not entirely arbitrary. But this makes up only a small percentage.

(2008, 21判断) The arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication, which only human beings are capable of and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.

2) Productivity创造性（2007，32名词解释）

Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard of. 语言的创造性主要表现在语言使用者能够以有限的语言规则为基础说出和理解无限的句子，包括他们以前从没有听说过的句子。

Productivity is unique to human language. Most animal communication systems appear to be highly restricted with respect to the number of different signals that their users can send and receive.

3) Duality二重性（2007，31名词解释）

Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds ad the other of meanings. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of sounds, which are meaningless. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning such as morphemes and words. Then at the higher level, the units can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences. 二重性：它指语言在结构上存在低层次和高层次。在低层次是一个个没有意义的音，如/p/, /g/, /i/等，但是这些处在低层次的没有意义的音可以依照一定的语言规则结合在一起形成语言体系的高层次，即：有意义的单位，如词素，单词等。

No animal communication system has duality or even comes near to possessing it.

4) Displacement移位性（2008名词解释）

Language can be used to refer to things, which are present or not present, real or imagined matter in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.移位性指人类可以使用语言来谈论过去的事情，现在的事情或将来的事情；语言也可以用来谈论我们客观世界中的事情，或假想世界中的事情。总之，语言的使用可以脱离交际的直接情景语境，从而不受语言时空距离的影响。

In contrast, no animal communication system possesses this feature.

5) Cultural transmission文化传递性（2001，2005，31名词解释）

We are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned anew.文化的传递性是指，虽然人类习得语言的能力有遗传因素的原因，但是语言体系具体内容的习得不是通过遗传来传递的，而是要通过后天的学习来获得。

In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectal complementation.

三、本章历年试题

第一部分 选择题

Ⅰ. Directions: Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter A, B, C or D in the brackets. (2%×10=20%)

1.The famous quotation from Shakespeare's play “Romeo and Juliet” ‘A rose by any other name would smell as sweet’ well illustrates _______.( ) A. the conventional nature of language B. the creative nature of language C. the universality of language

D. the big difference between human language and animal communication

1. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is good proof that human language is ______.

A. arbitrary B. non-arbitrary C. logical D. non-productive 1. Linguistics is the scientific study of __________. A. a particular language B. the English language C. human languages in general D. the system of a particular language

1. Chomsky uses the term ( ) to refer to the actual realization of a language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language in linguistic communication. A. langue B. competence C. parole D. performance

7. linguistics refers to the study of a language or languages at a single point in time, without reference to earlier or later stages.

A. Diachronic B. Synchronic C. Historical D. Comparative 9. is the study of language in relation to the mind.

A. Psycholinguistics B. Sociolinguistics C. Linguistics D. Semantics

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